Communism is a political and economic ideology that stands in opposition to liberal democracy and capitalism. It advocates for a classless system in which the means of production are owned communally, while private property is either nonexistent or severely limited.
Key Takeaways
- Communism envisions a classless society in which all property and wealth are communally owned, instead of being owned by individuals.
- Historical Roots: Visions of a society structured on communal ownership trace back to as early as the 4th Century BCE.
- Modern Development: Communism began to take shape as an ideology during the French Revolution, with Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels’ seminal work, the Communist Manifesto (1848), solidifying its tenets.
- Opposition to Capitalism: Communism has been historically framed in opposition to capitalist systems, which rely on democracy and private ownership of capital.
- Examples: The Soviet Union and China are notable examples, although the Soviet Union collapsed in 1991 and China has incorporated elements of capitalism into its economy.
The Essence of Communism
“Communism” is an encompassing term for various ideologies that advocate communal ownership. The word’s modern usage can be attributed to Victor d’Hupay, an 18th-century French aristocrat. He promoted living in communes where property would be shared to ensure everyone benefits from collective labor.
The concept was not entirely new; for instance, the Bible’s Book of Acts describes 1st-Century Christian communities practicing koinonia, which inspired later groups like the 17th-century English “Diggers” to reject private ownership.
The Communist Manifesto
Modern communist thought coalesced during the French Revolution. Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels’ Communist Manifesto (1848) spearheaded this transformation. Contrary to earlier religiously-influenced communist philosophies, the Manifesto presented a materialist and claimed scientific analysis of human history centered on class struggles.
The text portrayed the French Revolution as a pivotal transition from the feudal struggle between nobles and serfs to the modern conflict between the bourgeoisie (capitalist class) and the proletariat (working class). Marx and Engels anticipated a global proletarian revolution that would culminate in first socialism, and finally communism. Under communism, class struggle would end, along with distinctions of class, family, religion, property, and the state.
Communist economies would operate under the principle: “from each according to his ability, to each according to his needs”.
The Soviet Union: A Practical Test of Communist Theory
Marxist theories were first put to the test with the Bolshevik Revolution in Russia, led by Vladimir Lenin in 1917. By 1922, the Soviet Union was established, attempting to implement communist ideology.
Before the revolution, Lenin introduced the Marxist theory of vanguardism, advocating for a politically enlightened elite to guide society toward socialism and communism.
Despite these efforts, Lenin’s success was followed by an era of totalitarian rule under Joseph Stalin, who led from 1922 to 1953. Stalin’s regime pursued intense purges, enforced agricultural collectivization, and created rigid economic plans, resulting in rapid industrialization amidst immense human cost. Central planning stifled weak consumer spending and led to systemic inefficiencies.
In 1991, the Soviet Union collapsed due to persistent economic decline and the limits of reform efforts such as perestroika (restructuring) and glasnost (openness).
Communist China: Transformation and Directing the Future
In 1949, Mao Zedong’s Communist Party won control of China, establishing the world’s second significant Marxist-Leninist state. However, policy divides and conflicts with the Soviet Union’s approach led to an independent ideological path.
Mao’s reign saw events like the Great Leap Forward and the Cultural Revolution, resulting in significant loss of life and enduring trauma.
After Mao’s death, Deng Xiaoping steered market reforms, fostering economic changes while maintaining Communist Party governance. While communist in name, China now integrates capitalist elements, yet remains autocratic and suppresses opposition extensively.
Important Year: 1991
1991 marks the collapse of the Soviet Union, ending the Cold War era between the Communist East and Capitalist West.
The Cold War Showdown
Post-World War II saw the emergence of the U.S. and the Soviet Union as superpowers dividing the globe into distinct ideological zones. The Cold War was characterized by nuclear armament standoffs and proxy wars, like the Vietnam War, ultimately ending with the Soviet Union’s dissolution in 1991.
Why Did Communism Falter?
Several key reasons contributed to communism’s failure:
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Lack of Profit Incentive: The absence of personal motive impeded innovation and productivity.
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Central Planning Inefficiencies: Complex and error-prone centralized economic planning led to misallocations and illusions of progress.
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Concentrated Power: The control held by a small elite fostered corruption, inefficiency, and systemic exploitation.
Supervision and surveillance became commonplace, stifling productivity and promoting systemic stagnation.
Modern Examples of Communism
While major attempts at large-scale communism have faltered, small-scale communes where individuals share responsibilities and possessions remain functional and cohesive.
Contemporary Communist Countries
Today, countries like China, Cuba, Laos, North Korea, and Vietnam identify as communist. However, they incorporate capitalist elements and often deviate from pure Marxist doctrine.
Communism vs. Socialism
Both systems advocate for public ownership and aim to dismantle private capitalism. However, socialism is seen as more moderate, allowing sectors of capitalism to coexist and pushing for change progressively rather than through revolution.
The Takeaway
Though historically significant, the implementation of communism on a large scale has faced substantial hurdles. The French Revolution, as well as Marx and Engels’ work, crystallized it as a formidable ideology but its practical application exposed failures and deviations. The debate on communism’s viability continues, with significant voices on both sides.
Related Terms: Socialism, Capitalism, Central Planning, Proletariat, Vanguard Party, State Ownership.
References
- Britannica. “Communism”.
- Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels. “The Communist Manifesto”, Page 9. Appleton-Century-Crofts, Inc., 1955.
- Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels. “The Communist Manifesto”, Page xxviii. Appleton-Century-Crofts, Inc., 1955.
- Library of Congress. “Revelations From the Russian Archives”.
- History.com. “Joseph Stalin”.
- Texas National Security Review. “Assessing Soviet Economic Performance During the Cold War: A Failure of Intelligence”?
- U.S. Department of State - Office of the Historian. “Fall of Communism in Eastern Europe, 1989”.
- U.S. Department of State - Office of the Historian. “The Chinese Revolution of 1949”.
- U.S. Department of State Archive. “Background Notes: China, August 1999”.
- Columbia University. “The Institutional Causes of China’s Great Famine, 1959-1961”, Page 1568.
- Harvard University. “For Whom the Bell Tolls: The Political Legacy of China’s Cultural Revolution”.
- U.S. Secretary of State - Office of the Historian. “Chronology of U.S.-China Relations, 1784-2000”.
- Human Rights Watch. “China”.
- Center for Strategic and International Studies. “Hong Kong 2022”.
- Council on Foreign Relations. “Political Participation in China: What’s Allowed Under Xi”?
- Library of Congress. “Churchill and the Great Republic”.
- U.S. Secretary of State - Office of the Historian. “The Collapse of the Soviet Union”.
- Marxists.org. “How to Be a Good Communist”.
- Britannica. “Which Countries Are Communist”?
- History.com. “How Are Socialism and Communism Different”?
